Antiquity I

1.Twilight

Pre-History

There is no evidence that humans occupied the island of Pharos during the early pre-historic ages such as Mesolithic or Neolithic periods or even the Copper and Bronze Ages (2,500-600 BC), but on the eastern side of the island one site dated to 3,000 years ago was discovered that indicated people were in the area eating a marine diet including shellfish. It is possible that humans did occupy the region but found few resources outside of coastal shell fishing and acorns and did not continually occupy the region.

It is believed that the firstpeople that inhabited the island were tribes from the British Islands in EarlyIron Age (600-400 BC), mainly Caledonians or Picts, a group of people living inancient eastern and northern Scotland. The Caledonians, like many Celtic tribesin Britain, were hill fort builders and farmers who defeated and were defeatedby the Romans on several occasions. The Romans never fully occupied Caledonia(modern day Scotland), though several attempts were made. Nearly all of the informationthat we have about the Caledonians comes from their Roman enemy, and thereforeunbiased information may be difficult to obtain.

Peter Salway, the British historian, considers the Pharonian Caledonians to have consisted of indigenous Pictish tribes augmented by fugitive Brythonic resistance fighters fleeing from Britannia. The Pictish tribes such as the Iverni, Auteini, Vellabori and others are historically assumed to be the first inhabitants of the island and are recorded on the world map of Ptolemy in his "Geographia". Except for the Caledonians, the names may be second or third hand, perhaps as reported to the Romans by speakers of Brythonic or Gaulish languages.

What they called themselves is unknown. The Latin word Picti first occurs in a panegyric written by Eumenius in AD 297 and is taken to mean "painted or tattooed people" (from Latin pingere "to paint", pictus, "painted", cf. Greek "πυκτίς" - pyktis, "picture"). As Salway noted, "Much ink has been spilt over what the ancient writers meant by Picts, but it seems to be a generic term for people living in the north of the British islands who raided the Roman Empire". Their Old English name gave the modern Scots form "Pechts" and the Welsh word "Fichti". In writings from Ireland, the name "Cruthin, Cruthini, Cruthni, Cruithni or Cruithini (Modern Irish: Cruithne)" was used to refer to the Picts and to a group of people who lived in the islands around Britain. It is generally accepted that this is derived from "Qritani", which is the Goidelic/Q-Celtic version of the Britonnic/P-Celtic "Pritani". From this came "Britanni", the Roman name for those now called the Britons. It has been suggested that Cruthin was a name used to refer to all the Britons who were not conquered by the Romans; those who lived outside Roman Britannia.

Pytheas and Thule

The myth says that the first people to have put foot on the island were the Greek sailors of Pytheas of Massilia in the 4th century BC. Pytheas was a Greek geographer and explorer from the Greek colony, Massilia (today Marseille, France). He made a voyage of exploration to northwestern Europe at about 332-310 BC. He traveled around and visited a considerable part of Great Britain. He then traveled to the north and west and he was the one who introduced the idea of distant Thule to the geographic imagination - a distant island that was described in his now lost work, "On the Ocean". Some historians believe that the described island was Pharos, as others believe that he described Iceland or even Greenland. Strabo in his Geography mentions Thule and notes that Pytheas says it "is a six days' sail from Britain". Strabo ultimately concludes, in Book IV, Chapter 5: "Concerning Thule, our historical information is still more uncertain, on account of its outside position; for Thule, of all the countries that are named in Pytheas' work, is set farthest west."

Nearly a half century later, in 77, Pliny the Elder published his Natural History in which he also cites Pytheas' claim (in Book II, Chapter 75) that Thule is a six-day sail west of Britain. Then, when discussing the islands around Britain in Book IV, Chapter 16, he writes: "The farthest of all, which are known and spoke of, is Thule". The fact that Pytheas lived centuries before the colonization of Iceland and Greenland by European agriculturalists makes them less likely candidates, as Thule was described as being populated and its soil tilled.

Concerning the people of Thule Strabo says of Pytheas, but grudgingly: "...he might possibly seem to have made adequate use of the facts as regards the people who live close to the frozen zone, when he says that, ... the people live on millet and other herbs, and on fruits and roots; and where there are grain and honey, the people get their beverage, also, from them. As for the grain, he says, - since they have no pure sunshine - they pound it out in large storehouses, after first gathering in the ears thither; for the threshing floors become useless because of this lack of sunshine and because of the rains."

What he seems to be describing is an agricultural country that uses barns for threshing grain rather than the Mediterranean outside floor of sunbaked mud and manufacture a drink, possibly mead. This is in accordance with the early Caledonian way of life, as found in evidence in Scotland, Ireland and even Pharos itself.

The Atlantis Theory

In 1882, Ignatius Donnelly published "Atlantis: The Antediluvian World", a book in which he assumed that the mythical continent of Atlantis extended from the island of Pharos south along the North Atlantic ridge, to the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. Nonetheless, his theory was not supported by the efforts of archaeologists to unearth remnants of the Atlantean civilization on the island. During the late 19th century, ideas about the legendary nature of Atlantis were combined with stories of other lost continents such as Mu and Lemuria. The esoteric text Oera Linda, published in 1872, mentions it under the name Atland (the name used by Olaus Rudbeck). The book claims that it was submerged in 2193 BC, the same year that 19th century almanacs, following traditional Biblical chronology, gave for Noah's flood and that Pharos was the only high peak of the Atlantis to avoid flooding and submerging.

Thelocation of Atlantis in the Atlantic Ocean (in contrast to the theories thatplace it in the Mediterranean or elsewhere) has a certain appeal given theclosely related names. Popular culture often places Atlantis there,perpetuating the original Platonic setting. Several hypotheses place the sunkenisland in northern Europe, as others place it more to the south in relativeproximity to the Straits of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean Sea (north ofCanary Islands). However detailed geological studies of the area north of theCanary Islands, the Azores, Madeira up to the island of Pharos and the oceanbottom surrounding them found a complete lack of any evidence for thecatastrophic subsidence of these islands at any time during their existence anda complete lack of any evidence that the ocean bottom surrounding them was everdry land at any time in the recent past, with the exception of what appeared tobe beaches.

2. First Greek settlement

Origin of Greek settlers

Almost two centuries after the travels of Pytheas the island was inhabited in an organized manner for the first time by travelers from the Mediterranean. There were Greeks from the colony of Pharos (modern day Stari Grad, Croatia), on the island that is today known as Hvar Island, off the Dalmatian coast in Adriatic Sea. Greeks from the Cycladic island of Paros founded the Pharos colony in 385 BC when they defeated ladasinoi warriors and their allies, invited by the Hvar indigenes in their resistance to the Greek colonization. Their victory over much larger forces was immortalized in one of the oldest known inscriptions of Croatia and was made possible with the aid of the ruler of Syracuse Dionysius the Eldest, as the only Ionian settlement in the region. The name Pharos means "lighthouse" in Greek and is assumed to reflect the building of such a facility on the shores of the island, which lies strategically at the center of the Adriatic trade routes.

In 219 BC the Adriatic colony Pharos was occupied by the Romans after the second Illyrian War and their leader Demetrius of Pharos fled to Macedon where he became a trusted councilor at the court of Philip V of Macedon. The island of Pharos became part of the Roman province of Illiricum and remained in the middle of a constant conflict between Romans and Illyrians until 168 BC, when the last king of the Illyrians Gentius, was defeated by Rome. Due to the Roman atrocities during this period, most of the people evacuated the island westwards in Massilia.

The refugees tried to establish a new colony there, but after the refusal of the Massilians to let them settle in the area, they organized a massive colonization under the guidance of their leaders and patrons of the expedition Homerus and Kifissos. The colonization attempt was aimed to search for Thule, guided by the writings of Pytheas. It took place around 155-154 BC with a large fleet of almost 100 ships. After a period of travels that lasted almost 2 years, they - probably accidentally - found the island, defeated the few Caledonian inhabitants, settled and gave it its name after their original colony. They established a communication with the European inland through mainly Spain and in the following 20-30 years other Greeks came along, usually fleeing from other parts of the Roman Empire, such as Illyria, Hepirus, Attica and the Cyclades. The hypothesis that the native Caledonian inhabitants gradually absorbed Greek influences has since been supported by some recent genetic research.

The Romans referred to Pharos as "Faria" or "Faris". Ptolemy in AD 100 records Pharos' geography and tribes. Pharos was never formally a part of the Roman Empire, but Roman influence was often projected well beyond formal borders. Tacitus writes that an exiled Pharonian prince was with Agricola in Britain and would return to seize power in Pharos. Juvenal tells us that Roman arms had been taken beyond the shores of Ireland. In recent years, some experts have hypothesized that Roman-sponsored Gaelic forces (or perhaps even Roman regulars) mounted some kind of invasion from Britain around 100 BC, but the exact relationship between Rome and the dynasties and peoples of Pharos remains unclear. The Romans were reluctant to travel such a distance into the Atlantic Ocean and considered Pharos as an island of no strategic or economic importance.

The Eptapolis Alliance

The Greek settlers established their colonies mostly in the protected natural harbors of the eastern and southern shores of the island, as they were primarily interested in commerce and the western shores would not serve this purpose. They soon created the Eptapolis alliance, which ruled over the whole of Pharos. The alliance included the six largest and richest cities, in addition to the sacred city of Eptapolis, located on a protected plateau in the middle of the island. Eptapolis had the most significant oracle in the island and the alliance representatives would meet there biannually to resolve differences and take decisions. These 6 cities were the following:
•             Nobila, in the location of today's Nobel, was founded by the most significant noble families of the Pharos Colony, thus acquiring its name. It had the strongest land military presence in the island. Its oligarchic regime, combined with a vast mercantile fleet had made the city the richest in the island.

•             Parva, near today's Cress, was established from settlers originating from Hepirus and its name means "the little one", although the reason for this name is not known. These settlers colonized the island's northern and most inhospitable areas, which they called Diacria, meaning the land of those on the border.

•             Adriatica, in the site of today's Adrian village near Holborn, was founded by Illyrian Greeks and its name derives from the Illyrian word adur meaning "sea". The sanctuaries of their gods were distinctive for the elaborated dais on which they were built. These became a trademark of their political and military influence over their entire region, which eventually came to be known as Daisland (today Diceland).

•             Marina, the city of mariners, was established across from today's Vigo Island. The wider territory under their political and economic influence was named Concordia, after their city's founding treaty. This was the "Concord of Marina" between the merchants and local aristocracy and was concluded after a short but brutal civil war in 176 BC.

•             Attalia, across from Attalia Island, off today's Gilbey Town, acquired its name from Attalus, the leader of its founders, who was related to his namesake King of Pergamon. They had fled Roman rule and created an influential Kingdom that controlled the Iolian Gulf.

•             Tavla, in the southern shores of Pharos, was established by settlers from Attica and became famous for its sailors and especially its cartographers, its name deriving from the tablets on which they would put their maps.

3. Iberian refugees and the Cantabrian War

The second wave of settlers

Over the first century after colonization, the settlements on Pharos grew considerably with the gradual influx of refugees from Iberia, as a result of Roman encroachment into that peninsula. Most newcomers were of Greek descent, but they were accompanied by a significant number of Carthaginians who fled to the island after the 3^rd Punic War and the destruction of Carthage. Lead by the Punic Generals Himilco Phameas and Bytheas, they were chased by the Romans all the way to the Gibraltar straight, but the Roman fleet was reluctant to continue their chase into the Atlantic Ocean. The Carthaginians also brought to Pharos a significant number of Iberians, Lusitanians and Galicians lead by their leader Tautalus, who also fled the continent due to Roman expansion.

Most refugees were forced by the Eptapolis Alliance to settle in the area between Nobila and Marina. Carthaginians expanded their townships in many central areas of the island, while some communities of Lusitanians were forced to settle in the inhospitable western shores over the Iolian Gulf. The new settlers were mostly controlled by Nobila, who expanded its territory in all directions and used them as vassals, cultivators and a land buffer against the three southern cities of Marina, Attalia and Tavla. Around 20 BC the population of the island was estimated to have reached 100,000 people.

Arrival of the Cantabri and the Cantabrian War

The third large influx of settlers came at the end of the Roman Cantabrian Wars, around 19 BC, when large number of Cantabri and Astoures, fierce fighters from Iberia of Celtic origin, sailed to the island fleeing the Roman onslaught. Regarded as savage and untamable mountaineers, the Cantabri long defied the Roman legions and made a name for themselves for their independent spirit and freedom. Indeed, Cantabri warriors were regarded as being tough and fiercest fighters, suitable for mercenary employment, but prone to banditry.

The Cantabri, under the leadership of their general Gauson, attacked from the South and devastated Attalia, although Tavla was spared by paying a handsome amount as ransom. The Cantabri raised their famous labaro (Cantabri for "standard", meaning civil flag) on the coast across from Attalia and established their capital on the location (Labaro, today's Labra). Local Lusitanians were forced to subjugation or flight and many of them relocated, with the assistance of Tavla, to the southern shores of Pharos as this city's allies. The Cantabri gradually expanded their occupation on all areas above the Iolian Gulf to the West of the central mountains and up to the outskirts of Eptapolis, exterminating all remaining Iberians in their areas. The Astoures moved to the northern part of these territories, while the Cantabri settled in the southern and eastern regions. The Eptapolis Alliance managed to keep them out of the Central basin, protecting the population with a series of fortified cities guarding the mountain passes from the Iolian Gulf to Eptapolis - the Cantabrian Line of Forts. The fortresses formed an arc from Esperia (today's Westgate) to Artesia, Thermi (today's Tuerto), Odra, Scandia, Nontron, Therovon (today's Terovo) and Eminentia.

The naming of a city: In one of the Cantabri strikes on a central township of Carthaginians, a famous incident occurred when a dog repelled a night attack of Cantabri by killing their leader. The township was named Hilvar, after this dog, and developed to become the capital of Pharos in modern times.

The Hinji Region

The tactics of the Cantabri gradually deteriorated to those of guerrilla warfare avoiding, due to their inferior numbers and more primitive war tactics, direct attacks on the Greek forces. Their acquired knowledge of the difficult terrain of Western Pharos allowed them to seek refuge there after their attacks and conduct quick surprise strikes with ranged weapons. Hostilities between Greeks and Cantabri were formally concluded around 4 BC, with both sides acknowledging the impasse and settling with the preservation of the status quo. The Cantabri remained formally in occupation of the Western regions, which henceforth acquired the name of Hinji, for the Cantabrian-Astourian word for "new home". After a couple of centuries, the mixed people of these areas acquired the same name and were referred to as Hinji.

The arrival of Celts

For a short period of 10 years from AD 43 onwards, there was a small but steady influx of Celts vacating the British Isles and Gaul to avoid Roman rule and persecution. They settled in the northern and Eastern shores of Pharos. Although they were mostly assimilated into the prevailing culture, they kept their religious beliefs and influenced the customs of their region significantly. Pharos was one of the few places that Celtic druidism was tolerated, as shown in the 2nd century book "De Divinatione" by Constantius of Khorton.

Language and Customs in Ancient Pharos

The language used on the island during this period and, indeed, over the next millennium was generally based on Latin. Official business was usually conducted in Greek, as a result of Greek predominance in the powerful cities of the ruling alliances and kingdoms, but the writing employed Latin characters, which were more comprehensible to the various ethnic groups. Over time, titles and official references changed to represent a mixture of the corresponding words of the different nations. There was general popular respect and official institutional protection for non-subversive religious and ethnic customs, which made the island a rare beacon of tolerance in the European middle-ages.

The first settlers lived in organized communities around a fortified hill or elevated plateau, ruled usually by a chieftain or a council of lords. As people became more numerous, wars broke out between opposing tribes. This was traditionally interpreted as the reason for the building of castles, although the siting of some earthworks on the sides of hills undermined their defensive value, hence "hill forts" may represent increasing communal areas or even 'Elite Areas'. About 100 BC, local iron coinage began to be used as currency, while internal trade and trade with continental Europe flourished, largely due to Pharos' extensive mineral reserves. Coinage was developed, based on continental types but bearing the names of local chieftains. The Pharonians were also renowned wheat farmers. Large farmsteads produced food in industrial quantities and Roman sources note that Pharos exported also minerals, wood, animal skins and fish products.